In short: both zero-rated and exempt sales show £0 VAT to the customer — the difference is what happens behind the scenes. A zero-rated business is still making taxable supplies at 0%: the sales count towards the £90,000 registration threshold and it can reclaim input VAT on its purchases. An exempt business is outside the VAT system: it cannot reclaim the VAT it pays to suppliers, its sales don't count towards the threshold, and if everything it sells is exempt it cannot register for VAT at all.
The one-line difference
Zero-rated = taxable at 0%. Exempt = not taxable at all.
That one distinction flows through every part of your VAT accounting:
| Zero-rated (0%) | Exempt | |
|---|---|---|
| VAT charged to the customer | £0 | £0 |
| Counts towards the £90,000 threshold | Yes | No |
| Can reclaim VAT on related purchases | Yes | No (cost is lost) |
| Appears in box 6 of the VAT return | Yes | No |
| Can register if you sell only these | Yes (or apply for an exception) | No — registration not allowed |
What falls in each bucket
Usually zero-rated
- Most food and drink of a kind fit for human consumption
- Books, newspapers and other printed matter — and e-books since May 2020
- Children's clothing and footwear
- Most public transport fares
- First sale of a new dwelling and certain building work for disabled people
- Domestic water and sewerage services
- Drugs dispensed against a prescription
- Exports of goods outside the UK
Usually exempt
- Insurance
- Finance and credit (loans, hire purchase interest)
- Education and vocational training by eligible bodies
- Health services from registered doctors, dentists and opticians
- Selling, leasing or letting land and property (unless you option to tax)
- Postal services provided by Royal Mail
- Betting, gaming and lotteries
- Subscriptions to trade unions and membership bodies
Lists are summaries, not law — the exact scope of each category is in HMRC's rates guidance, and edge cases are common. When in doubt, check the specific item, not the category.
Worked example: why zero-rated can mean HMRC pays you
Two small businesses each turn over £80,000 a year and each pays £12,000 of input VAT to their suppliers on rent, equipment, packaging and professional fees:
| Bookshop (zero-rated sales) | Insurance broker (exempt sales) | |
|---|---|---|
| VAT charged to customers | £0 | £0 |
| VAT paid to suppliers | £12,000 | £12,000 |
| VAT reclaimed from HMRC | −£12,000 | £0 |
| Net effect of VAT | HMRC repays £12,000 | £12,000 of lost profit |
Repayment traders like the bookshop often file monthly returns instead of quarterly just to get the money back faster. The broker, meanwhile, must price the irrecoverable VAT into its fees or absorb it — and it never appears on a return at all.
The traps everyone falls into
- Food is not catering. Cold food to take away is zero-rated; restaurant meals and hot takeaway food are 20%. The 2012 "pasty tax" row happened because a pasty kept warm counts as hot food.
- Chocolate-covered ≠ standard-rated if it's cake. Chocolate biscuit: 20%. Chocolate-covered cake: 0% — the court case that made Jaffa Cakes legally a cake.
- Property is exempt by default — but revocable. Landlords of commercial buildings can "option to tax", charge 20%, and unlock reclaims on refurbishments. The election is usually permanent.
- Zero-rated sales still register. A fast-growing online grocer hits the £90,000 registration threshold just like anyone else — only exempt income is invisible to the test.
- Flat Rate Scheme users: your flat-rate percentage applies to all turnover — including zero-rated and exempt sales. Booksellers and exporters must do the maths carefully; see the Flat Rate Scheme guide.
- It changes over time. E-books were 20% until 1 May 2020. Check the current list before relying on an old blog post (including this one — our review date is above).
Selling both? Meet partial exemption
A business with mixed income — think a financial adviser (exempt) who also sells standard-rated training courses — is "partially exempt". Each period, you split your input VAT and reclaim only the part linked to taxable sales. The safety valve is the de minimis: if your exempt input VAT averages no more than £625 a month and is no more than 50% of all your input VAT, you may reclaim everything and ignore the whole calculation. Bigger than that, and the admin (and the real cash cost) begins.
Outside the scope isn't exempt either. Employee wages, statutory fees like the MOT test, and free charitable donations are not supplies for VAT at all, so they never touch a VAT return — a third category that sits one step further out than exemption.
Frequently asked questions
If zero-rated and exempt both charge £0 VAT, what's the actual difference?
The customer sees no difference: no VAT on the invoice either way. For the seller, zero-rated supplies are still taxable at 0%, so input VAT on related purchases can be reclaimed and the sales count towards the £90,000 registration threshold. Exempt supplies sit outside the VAT system: no input VAT reclaims and they do not count towards the threshold.
Do zero-rated sales count towards the £90,000 VAT registration threshold?
Yes. Zero-rated sales are taxable supplies, so they count in full towards the £90,000 rolling 12-month threshold. Exempt sales do not count. A business selling only zero-rated goods can ask HMRC for an exception from registration, but then it gives up the right to reclaim input VAT.
Can a zero-rated business really be owed money by HMRC?
Yes. If your sales are zero-rated but you pay VAT on stock, rent, equipment or professional fees, your return often shows a repayment. HMRC pays the difference back to you, usually within about 10 days of the return being filed — which is why many such traders file monthly returns for faster cash flow.
Can an exempt business reclaim any of the VAT it pays?
No. Input VAT on purchases used to make exempt supplies cannot be reclaimed, so it becomes a real overhead that has to be priced into what you sell. The only relief is the partial-exemption de minimis: businesses with mostly taxable sales may ignore small amounts of exempt input tax.
What is partial exemption?
It applies to businesses making both taxable and exempt supplies, such as a financial adviser who also sells standard-rated training. Input VAT is apportioned under the standard method, and only the part relating to taxable sales is reclaimed — unless your exempt input VAT stays within the de minimis limit of £625 per month on average and no more than 50% of your total input VAT, in which case it can all be recovered.
Is food always zero-rated?
No. Most basic food bought to eat at home is zero-rated, but catering, restaurant meals and hot takeaway food are standard-rated at 20%. The boundary produces famous court cases: chocolate-covered cake is zero-rated while a chocolate biscuit is 20% — which is how Jaffa Cakes ended up being ruled a cake.
Can I choose to charge VAT on exempt supplies?
Generally no — exemption is compulsory — with one big exception: owners of commercial property can 'option to tax' and charge 20% VAT on rent or the sale price of that building. This unlocks input VAT reclaims on refurbishments and fees, but it is normally irrevocable, so take advice first.
Is zero-rated the same as 'outside the scope'?
No. Zero-rated items are supplies taxed at 0%. Outside-the-scope items are not supplies for VAT at all — employee wages, statutory fees like the MOT test, charitable donations given freely, and transfers of your own assets between branches. They never appear on a VAT return.
Sources and review
This guide was checked against GOV.UK guidance, including VAT rates for goods and services and Charge, reclaim and record VAT, on 3 August 2026. The categories, threshold and de minimis figures are current at the review date.
This guide is general information, not tax advice — zero-rating boundary cases are famously litigious, so confirm classification with HMRC or an accountant for anything non-obvious. See our disclaimer. Spot an error? Tell us and we'll fix it.